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Constitution

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Constitution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Constitution (disambiguation)">Constitution (disambiguation)</a></div>

A constitution, or supreme law, is the aggregate of fundamental <a href="Principle" title="Principle">principles</a> or established <a href="Precedent" title="Precedent">precedents</a> that constitute the <a href="Legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal">legal</a> basis of a <a href="Polity" title="Polity">polity</a>, <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> or other type of <a href="Legal_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal entity">entity</a>, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. <a href="The_Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="The Constitution of the United Kingdom">The Constitution of the United Kingdom</a> is a notable example of an uncodified constitution; it is instead written in numerous fundamental acts of a legislature, court cases, and treaties.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from <a href="Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign countries</a> to <a href="Company" title="Company">companies</a> and unincorporated <a href="Club_(organization)" title="Club (organization)">associations</a>. A <a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">treaty</a> that establishes an <a href="International_organization" title="International organization">international organization</a> is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made, and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as <a href="Fundamental_rights" title="Fundamental rights">fundamental rights</a>. Changes to constitutions frequently require <a href="Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">consensus</a> or <a href="Supermajority" title="Supermajority">supermajority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

The <a href="Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a> is the longest written constitution of any country in the world,<a href="#cite_note-longest-4">[4]</a> with 146,385 words<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a> in its <a href="Indian_English" title="Indian English">English-language</a> version,<a href="#cite_note-lawmin_info-6">[6]</a> while the <a href="Constitution_of_Monaco" title="Constitution of Monaco">Constitution of Monaco</a> is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a> The <a href="Constitution_of_San_Marino" title="Constitution of San Marino">Constitution of San Marino</a> might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the <a href="Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a> is the oldest active codified constitution. The historical life expectancy of a written constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

The term constitution comes through <a href="French_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="French (language)">French</a> from the <a href="Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial</a> enactments (constitutiones principis: edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta).<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Later, the term was widely used in <a href="Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the <a href="Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a>, now referred to as an <a href="Apostolic_constitution" title="Apostolic constitution">apostolic constitution</a>.

<a href="William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> used the term for significant and egregious violations of public trust, of a nature and extent that the transgression would justify a <a href="Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">revolutionary</a> response. The term as used by Blackstone was not for a legal text, nor did he intend to include the later American concept of <a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>: "for that were to set the judicial power above that of the legislature, which would be subversive of all government".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_features">General features</h2></div>

Generally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers on an organization or institutional entity, on the primary condition that it abides by the constitution’s limitations. According to Scott Gordon, a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it "contain[s] <a href="Institution" title="Institution">institutionalized</a> mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and <a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">liberties</a> of the <a href="Citizenry" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenry">citizenry</a>, including those that may be in the <a href="Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Gordon1999-11">[11]</a>

Activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall within the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials are termed "within power" (or, in Latin, intra vires); if they do not, they are termed "beyond power" (or, in Latin, <a href="Ultra_vires" title="Ultra vires">ultra vires</a>). For example, a <a href="Students'_union" title="Students' union">students' union</a> may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities, these activities are considered to be ultra vires of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An example from the constitutional law of <a href="Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign states</a> would be a provincial <a href="Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</a> in a <a href="Federal_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal state">federal state</a> trying to legislate in an area that the constitution allocates exclusively to the federal parliament, such as ratifying a treaty. Action that appears to be beyond power may be <a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicially reviewed</a> and, if found to be beyond power, must cease. Legislation that is found to be beyond power will be "invalid" and of no force; this applies to primary legislation, requiring constitutional authorization, and secondary legislation, ordinarily requiring statutory authorization. In this context, "within power", intra vires, "authorized" and "valid" have the same meaning; as do "beyond power", ultra vires, "not authorized" and "invalid".

In most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary <a href="Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">statutory law</a> (see <a href="#Uncodified_constitution">Uncodified constitution</a> below); in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is null and void, and the nullification is <a href="Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">ab initio</a>, that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. It was never "law", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation. Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but that the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate. In such a case, only that application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedies for such violations have been petitions for common law <a href="Writ" title="Writ">writs</a>, such as <a href="Quo_warranto" title="Quo warranto">quo warranto</a>.

Scholars debate whether a constitution must necessarily be <a href="Autochthon_(ancient_Greece)" title="Autochthon (ancient Greece)">autochthonous</a>, resulting from the nation's "spirit". <a href="Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> said "A constitution...is the work of centuries; it is the idea, the consciousness of rationality so far as that consciousness is developed in a particular nation."<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2></div>

Since 1789, along with the <a href="Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the United States of America">Constitution of the United States of America</a> (U.S. Constitution), which is the oldest and shortest written constitution still in force,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> close to 800 constitutions have been adopted and subsequently amended around the world by independent states.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-14">[14]</a>

In the late 18th century, <a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> predicted that a period of 20 years would be the optimal time for any constitution to be still in force, since "the earth belongs to the living, and not to the dead".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Indeed, according to recent studies,<a href="#cite_note-auto3-14">[14]</a> the average life of any newly written constitution is around 19 years. However, a great number of constitutions do not last more than 10 years, and around 10% do not last more than one year, as was the case of the <a href="French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">French Constitution of 1791</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-14">[14]</a> By contrast, some constitutions, notably that of the United States, have remained in force for several centuries, often without major revision for long periods.

The most common reasons for these frequent changes are the political desire for an immediate outcome and the short time devoted to the constitutional drafting process.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a> A study in 2009 showed that the average time taken to draft a constitution is around 16 months,<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a> however there were also some extreme cases registered. For example, the <a href="Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> 2008 Constitution was being secretly drafted for more than 17 years,<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a> whereas at the other extreme, during the drafting of <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s 1946 Constitution, the bureaucrats drafted everything in no more than a week. Japan has the oldest unamended constitution in the world.<a href="#cite_note-anomalous-constitution-18">[18]</a> The record for the shortest overall process of drafting, adoption, and ratification of a national constitution belongs to <a href="Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>'s 1938 constitution, which installed a royal dictatorship in less than a month.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Studies showed that typically extreme cases where the constitution-making process either takes too long or is extremely short were non-democracies.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

In principle, constitutional rights are not a specific characteristic of democratic countries. Autocratic states have constitutions, such as that of <a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, which officially grants every citizen, among other things, the <a href="Freedom_of_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of expression">freedom of expression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> However, the extent to which governments abide by their own constitutional provisions varies. In North Korea, for example, the <a href="Ten_Principles_for_the_Establishment_of_a_Monolithic_Ideological_System" title="Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System">Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System</a> are said to have eclipsed the constitution in importance as a frame of government in practice. Developing a legal and political tradition of strict adherence to constitutional provisions is considered foundational to the <a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-modern_constitutions">Pre-modern constitutions</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient">Ancient</h4></div>

Excavations in modern-day <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> by <a href="Ernest_de_Sarzec" title="Ernest de Sarzec">Ernest de Sarzec</a> in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known <a href="Code_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of justice">code of justice</a>, issued by the <a href="Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> king <a href="Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> of <a href="Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however, it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the <a href="Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> of the rich.

After that, many <a href="Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">governments</a> ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the <a href="Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a> of <a href="Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> (c. 2050 BC). Some of the better-known ancient law codes are the <a href="Code_of_Lipit-Ishtar" title="Code of Lipit-Ishtar">code of Lipit-Ishtar</a> of <a href="Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, the <a href="Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">code of Hammurabi</a> of <a href="Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, the <a href="Hittite_laws" title="Hittite laws">Hittite code</a>, the <a href="Assyrian_law" title="Assyrian law">Assyrian code</a>, and <a href="613_Commandments" class="mw-redirect" title="613 Commandments">Mosaic law</a>.

In 621 BC, a scribe named <a href="Draco_(lawgiver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Draco (lawgiver)">Draco</a> codified the oral laws of the <a href="City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> of <a href="Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>; this code prescribed the <a href="Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> for many offenses (thus creating the modern term "draconian" for very strict rules). In 594 BC, <a href="Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a>, the ruler of Athens, created the new <a href="Solonian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Solonian Constitution">Solonian Constitution</a>. It eased the burden of the workers and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be based on wealth (<a href="Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">plutocracy</a>), rather than on birth (<a href="Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>). <a href="Cleisthenes_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleisthenes of Athens">Cleisthenes</a> again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC.

<a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (c. 350 BC) was the first to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and <a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalism</a>, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was "the arrangement of the offices in a state". In his works <a href="Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of Athens</a>, <a href="Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a>, and <a href="Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a>, he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, <a href="Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Sparta</a>, and <a href="Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. He classified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves, who did not.

The Romans initially codified their constitution in 450 BC as the <a href="Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a>. They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but <a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> was not reorganized into a single code until the <a href="Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a> (438 AD); later, in the Eastern Empire, the <a href="Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Codex repetitæ prælectionis</a> (534) was highly influential throughout Europe. This was followed in the east by the Ecloga of <a href="Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> (740) and the Basilica of <a href="Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (878).

The <a href="Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a> established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC <a href="Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a> king's rule in <a href="History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a>. For constitutional principles almost lost to antiquity, see the <a href="Code_of_Manu" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Manu">code of Manu</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h4></div>

Many of the Germanic peoples that filled the power vacuum left by the <a href="Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the <a href="Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> codified their laws. One of the first of these <a href="Germanic_tribal_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribal laws">Germanic law codes</a> to be written was the Visigothic Code of <a href="Euric" title="Euric">Euric</a> (471 AD). This was followed by the <a href="Lex_Burgundionum" title="Lex Burgundionum">Lex Burgundionum</a>, applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the <a href="Lex_Alamannorum" title="Lex Alamannorum">Pactus Alamannorum</a>; and the <a href="Salic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Salic Law">Salic Law</a> of the <a href="Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, all written soon after 500. In 506, the <a href="Breviary_of_Alaric" title="Breviary of Alaric">Breviarum</a> or "Lex Romana" of <a href="Alaric_II" title="Alaric II">Alaric II</a>, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the Codex Theodosianus together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the <a href="Edictum_Rothari" title="Edictum Rothari">Edictum Rothari</a> of the <a href="Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> (643), the <a href="Lex_Visigothorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Visigothorum">Lex Visigothorum</a> (654), the Lex Alamannorum (730), and the <a href="Lex_Frisionum" title="Lex Frisionum">Lex Frisionum</a> (c. 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while <a href="Anglo-Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon language">Anglo-Saxon</a> was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of <a href="%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent" title="Æthelberht of Kent">Æthelberht of Kent</a> (602). Around 893, <a href="Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the <a href="Doom_book" title="Doom book">Doom book</a> code of laws for England.

<a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s <a href="Seventeen-article_constitution" title="Seventeen-article constitution">Seventeen-article constitution</a> written in 604, reportedly by <a href="Prince_Shotoku" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Shotoku">Prince Shōtoku</a>, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than on institutions of government, and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution.

The <a href="Constitution_of_Medina" title="Constitution of Medina">Constitution of Medina</a> (<a href="Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صحیفة المدینه, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna), also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the <a href="Islamic_prophet" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic prophet">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> after his flight (<a href="Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">hijra</a>) to Yathrib where he became political leader. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as <a href="Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>), including <a href="Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>, <a href="Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>, and <a href="Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (<a href="Banu_Aus" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Aus">Aus</a>) and <a href="Khazraj" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazraj">Khazraj</a> within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community – the <a href="Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated, but generally, scholars agree it was written shortly after the <a href="Hijra_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijra (Islam)">Hijra</a> (622).<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

In <a href="Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, the <a href="Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (Law of Hywel) was codified by <a href="Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a> c. 942–950. It served as the main law code in Wales until it was superseded by the <a href="Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Ages_after_1000">Middle Ages after 1000</h4></div>

The Pravda Yaroslava, originally combined by <a href="Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a> the <a href="Grand_Prince_of_Kiev" title="Grand Prince of Kiev">Grand Prince of Kiev</a>, was granted to <a href="Great_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Novgorod">Great Novgorod</a> around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the <a href="Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a>; it became the law for all of <a href="Kievan_Rus'" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. It survived only in later editions of the 15th century.

In England, <a href="Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I's</a> proclamation of the <a href="Charter_of_Liberties" title="Charter of Liberties">Charter of Liberties</a> in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced <a href="John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">King John</a> to sign <a href="Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> in 1215. The most important single article of Magna Carta, related to "<a href="Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim – there must be <a href="Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> of law first. This article, Article 39, of Magna Carta read:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by the legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.</blockquote>

This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The <a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> in the original case was between the king and the nobility but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of <a href="Constitutional_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Monarchy">Constitutional Monarchy</a>, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the <a href="British_House_of_Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a>.

The <a href="Nomocanon" title="Nomocanon">Nomocanon</a> of <a href="Saint_Sava" title="Saint Sava">Saint Sava</a> (<a href="Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>: Законоправило/Zakonopravilo)<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> was the first <a href="Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbian</a> constitution from 1219. <a href="St._Sava's_Nomocanon" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Sava's Nomocanon">St. Sava's Nomocanon</a> was the compilation of <a href="Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, based on <a href="Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman Law</a>, and <a href="Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>, based on <a href="Ecumenical_Councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Councils">Ecumenical Councils</a>. Its basic purpose was to organize the functioning of the young <a href="Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Serbian kingdom</a> and the <a href="Serbian_Ortodox_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian Ortodox Church">Serbian church</a>. Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while he was at <a href="Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a>, using The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles, Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian, Nomocanon of <a href="John_Scholasticus" title="John Scholasticus">John Scholasticus</a>, and Ecumenical Council documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and <a href="Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Joannes Zonaras</a>, local church meetings, rules of the <a href="Holy_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Fathers">Holy Fathers</a>, the law of <a href="Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, the translation of Prohiron, and the <a href="Byzantine_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a>' <a href="Novellae_Constitutiones" title="Novellae Constitutiones">Novellae</a> (most were taken from <a href="Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a>'s Novellae). The Nomocanon was a completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> sources but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia. Besides decrees that organized the life of the church, there are various norms regarding civil life; most of these were taken from Prohiron. <a href="Legal_transplants" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal transplants">Legal transplants</a> of <a href="Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman</a>-<a href="Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a> became the basis of the Serbian medieval law. The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on <a href="Corpus_Iuris_Civilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Iuris Civilis">Corpus Iuris Civilis</a>.

<a href="Stefan_Du%C5%A1an" title="Stefan Dušan">Stefan Dušan</a>, emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted <a href="Du%C5%A1an's_Code" title="Dušan's Code">Dušan's Code</a> (<a href="Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>: Душанов Законик/Dušanov Zakonik)<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> in <a href="Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, in two state congresses: in 1349 in <a href="Skopje" title="Skopje">Skopje</a> and in 1354 in <a href="Serres" title="Serres">Serres</a>. It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo). The Code was based on <a href="Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman</a>-<a href="Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a>. The legal <a href="Legal_transplants" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal transplants">transplanting</a> within articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated juridical independence, is notable. They were taken from the Byzantine code <a href="Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a> (book VII, 1, 16–17).

In 1222, Hungarian King <a href="Andrew_II_of_Hungary" title="Andrew II of Hungary">Andrew II</a> issued the <a href="Golden_Bull_of_1222" title="Golden Bull of 1222">Golden Bull of 1222</a>.

Between 1220 and 1230, a <a href="Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxon</a> administrator, <a href="Eike_von_Repgow" class="mw-redirect" title="Eike von Repgow">Eike von Repgow</a>, composed the <a href="Sachsenspiegel" title="Sachsenspiegel">Sachsenspiegel</a>, which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900.

Around 1240, the <a href="Copt" class="mw-redirect" title="Copt">Coptic</a> Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the <a href="Fetha_Negest" title="Fetha Negest">Fetha Negest</a> in <a href="Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law and partly from the former <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into <a href="Ge'ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of <a href="Zara_Yaqob" title="Zara Yaqob">Zara Yaqob</a>. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with <a href="Sarsa_Dengel" title="Sarsa Dengel">Sarsa Dengel</a> beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style <a href="Constitution_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Ethiopia">Constitution</a> was first granted by Emperor <a href="Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> I.

In the <a href="Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>, the <a href="Catalan_constitutions" title="Catalan constitutions">Catalan constitutions</a> were promulgated by the Court from 1283 (or even two centuries before, if <a href="Usatges_of_Barcelona" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatges of Barcelona">Usatges of Barcelona</a> is considered part of the compilation of Constitutions) until 1716, when <a href="Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a> gave the <a href="Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta decrees</a>, finishing with the historical laws of <a href="Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>. These Constitutions were usually made formally as a royal initiative, but required for its approval or repeal the favorable vote of the <a href="Catalan_Courts" title="Catalan Courts">Catalan Courts</a>, the medieval antecedent of the modern Parliaments. These laws, like other modern constitutions, had preeminence over other laws, and they could not be contradicted by mere decrees or edicts of the king.

The <a href="Kouroukan_Fouga" title="Kouroukan Fouga">Kouroukan Founga</a> was a 13th-century charter of the <a href="Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a> in <a href="West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, reconstructed from oral tradition in 1988 by Siriman Kouyaté.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> It included the "right to life and to the preservation of physical integrity" and significant protections for women.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>: 334

The <a href="Golden_Bull_of_1356" title="Golden Bull of 1356">Golden Bull of 1356</a> was a decree issued by a <a href="Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)">Reichstag</a> in Nuremberg headed by Emperor <a href="Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles IV</a> that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the constitutional structure of the <a href="Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.

In <a href="China" title="China">China</a>, the <a href="Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> created and refined a document he called <a href="Huang_Ming_Zu_Xun" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang Ming Zu Xun">Ancestral Injunctions</a> (first published in 1375, revised twice more before he died in 1398). These rules served as a constitution for the <a href="Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> for the next 250 years.

The oldest written document still governing a sovereign nation today is that of <a href="San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The <a href="Constitution_of_San_Marino" title="Constitution of San Marino">Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini</a> was written in Latin and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers, and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil law and judicial procedures and remedies. Written in 1600, the document was based upon the Statuti Comunali (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the Codex Justinianus, and it remains in force today.

In 1392 the <a href="Carta_de_Logu" title="Carta de Logu">Carta de Logu</a> was <a href="Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal code</a> of the <a href="Giudicato_of_Arborea" class="mw-redirect" title="Giudicato of Arborea">Giudicato of Arborea</a> promulgated by the giudicessa <a href="Eleanor_of_Arborea" title="Eleanor of Arborea">Eleanor</a>. It was in force in <a href="Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> until it was superseded by the code of <a href="Charles_Felix_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Felix of Sardinia">Charles Felix</a> in April 1827. The Carta was a work of great importance in <a href="Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinian</a> history. It was an organic, coherent, and systematic work of legislation encompassing the <a href="Civil_law_(area)" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil law (area)">civil</a> and <a href="Penal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal law">penal law</a>.

The <a href="Great_Law_of_Peace" title="Great Law of Peace">Gayanashagowa</a>, the oral constitution of the <a href="Haudenosaunee" class="mw-redirect" title="Haudenosaunee">Haudenosaunee</a> nation also known as the Great Law of Peace, established a system of governance as far back as 1190 AD (though perhaps more recently at 1451) in which the <a href="Sachem" title="Sachem">Sachems</a>, or tribal chiefs, of the Iroquois League's member nations made decisions based on universal consensus of all chiefs following discussions that were initiated by a single nation. The position of Sachem descends through families and are allocated by the senior female clan heads, though, prior to the filling of the position, candidacy is ultimately democratically decided by the community itself.<a href="#cite_note-Tooker-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_constitutions">Modern constitutions</h3></div>

In 1634 the <a href="Kingdom_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Sweden">Kingdom of Sweden</a> adopted the <a href="Instrument_of_Government_(1634)" title="Instrument of Government (1634)">1634 Instrument of Government</a>, drawn up under the <a href="Lord_High_Chancellor_of_Sweden" title="Lord High Chancellor of Sweden">Lord High Chancellor of Sweden</a> <a href="Axel_Oxenstierna" title="Axel Oxenstierna">Axel Oxenstierna</a> after the death of king <a href="Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a>. This can be seen as the first written constitution adopted by a modern state.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English_civil_war_era">English civil war era</h4></div>

On 4 January 1649, the <a href="Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a> declared "that the people are, under God, the original of all just power; that the Commons of England, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in this nation".<a href="#cite_note-Fritze-35">[35]</a>

The <a href="English_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="English Protectorate">English Protectorate</a> set up by <a href="Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> after the <a href="English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> promulgated the first detailed written constitution adopted by a modern state;<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> it was called the <a href="Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a>. This formed the basis of government for the short-lived republic from 1653 to 1657 by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of Cromwell after Parliament consistently failed to govern effectively. Most of the concepts and ideas embedded into modern constitutional theory, especially <a href="Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameralism</a>, <a href="Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, the written constitution, and <a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>, can be traced back to the experiments of that period.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Drafted by <a href="John_Lambert_(General)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Lambert (General)">Major-General John Lambert</a> in 1653, the Instrument of Government included elements incorporated from an earlier document "<a href="Heads_of_Proposals" title="Heads of Proposals">Heads of Proposals</a>",<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> which had been agreed to by the <a href="Army_Council_(1647)" title="Army Council (1647)">Army Council</a> in 1647, as a set of propositions intended to be a basis for a constitutional settlement after King <a href="Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> was defeated in the <a href="First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">First English Civil War</a>. Charles had rejected the propositions, but before the start of the Second Civil War, the <a href="Grandee_(New_Model_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandee (New Model Army)">Grandees</a> of the <a href="New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> had presented the Heads of Proposals as their alternative to the more radical <a href="Agreement_of_the_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement of the People">Agreement of the People</a> presented by the Agitators and their civilian supporters at the <a href="Putney_Debates" title="Putney Debates">Putney Debates</a>. The Instrument of Government was adopted by Parliament on 15 December 1653, and <a href="Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> was installed as <a href="Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> on the following day. The constitution set up a state council consisting of 21 members while executive authority was vested in the office of "<a href="Lord_Protector_of_the_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Protector of the Commonwealth">Lord Protector of the Commonwealth</a>." This position was designated as a non-hereditary life appointment. The Instrument also required the calling of triennial <a href="Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliaments</a>, with each sitting for at least five months.

The Instrument of Government was replaced in May 1657 by England's second, and last, codified constitution, the <a href="Humble_Petition_and_Advice" title="Humble Petition and Advice">Humble Petition and Advice</a>, proposed by Sir <a href="Christopher_Packe_(politician)" title="Christopher Packe (politician)">Christopher Packe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The Petition offered hereditary <a href="Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> to <a href="Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, asserted <a href="Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>'s control over issuing new <a href="Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a>, provided an independent council to advise the king and safeguarded "Triennial" meetings of Parliament. A modified version of the Humble Petition with the clause on kingship removed was ratified on 25 May. This finally met its demise in conjunction with the death of Cromwell and the <a href="Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration</a> of the monarchy.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_colonies_in_North_America">British colonies in North America</h4></div>

In 1639, the <a href="Colony_of_Connecticut" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Connecticut">Colony of Connecticut</a> adopted the <a href="Fundamental_Orders_of_Connecticut" title="Fundamental Orders of Connecticut">Fundamental Orders</a>, which was the first <a href="North_America" title="North America">North American</a> constitution. It is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for <a href="Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>'s nickname, "the <a href="Constitution_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution State">Constitution State</a>".

All of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later <a href="Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and <a href="United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The <a href="Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Commonwealth of Massachusetts</a> adopted <a href="Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">its Constitution</a> in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democratic_constitutions:_18th_century">Democratic constitutions: 18th century</h3></div>

What is sometimes called the "enlightened constitution" model was developed by philosophers of the <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> such as <a href="Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, and <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. The model proposed that constitutional governments should be stable, adaptable, accountable, open and should represent the people (i.e., support <a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<a href="Constitution_of_Pylyp_Orlyk" title="Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk">Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host</a> was written in 1710 by <a href="Pylyp_Orlyk" title="Pylyp Orlyk">Pylyp Orlyk</a>, <a href="Hetman" title="Hetman">hetman</a> of the <a href="Zaporozhian_Host" title="Zaporozhian Host">Zaporozhian Host</a>. It was written to establish a free <a href="Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic</a>, with the support of <a href="Charles_XII_of_Sweden" title="Charles XII of Sweden">Charles XII of Sweden</a>. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's <a href="Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit of the Laws">Spirit of the Laws</a>. This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent <a href="Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.

<a href="Corsican_Constitution" title="Corsican Constitution">Corsican Constitutions</a> of 1755 and 1794 were inspired by <a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. The latter introduced <a href="Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> for property owners.

The <a href="Instrument_of_Government_(1772)" title="Instrument of Government (1772)">Swedish constitution of 1772</a> was enacted under King <a href="Gustavus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus III">Gustavus III</a> and was inspired by the <a href="Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> by <a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>. The king also cherished other <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a> ideas (as an <a href="Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlighted despot</a>) and repealed torture, liberated agricultural trade, diminished the use of the <a href="Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> and instituted a form of <a href="Religious_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious freedom">religious freedom</a>. The constitution was commended by <a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Borg-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-B-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Borg412-44">[44]</a>

The <a href="United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, ratified 21 June 1788, was influenced by the writings of <a href="Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="Charles_de_Secondat%2C_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, and others. The document became a benchmark for <a href="Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> and codified constitutions written thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-45">[45]</a>

The <a href="Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> <a href="Constitution_of_May_3%2C_1791" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of May 3, 1791">Constitution</a> was passed on 3 May 1791.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Markoff-48">[48]</a> Its draft was developed by the leading minds of the <a href="Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Enlightenment in Poland</a> such as King <a href="Stanislaw_August_Poniatowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislaw August Poniatowski">Stanislaw August Poniatowski</a>, <a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</a>, <a href="Scipione_Piattoli" title="Scipione Piattoli">Scipione Piattoli</a>, <a href="Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz</a>, <a href="Ignacy_Potocki" title="Ignacy Potocki">Ignacy Potocki</a> and <a href="Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> It was adopted by the <a href="Great_Sejm" title="Great Sejm">Great Sejm</a> and is considered the first constitution of its kind in Europe and the world's second oldest one after the American Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

Another landmark document was the <a href="French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">French Constitution of 1791</a>.

The <a href="1811_Constitution_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="1811 Constitution of Venezuela">1811 Constitution of Venezuela</a> was the first <a href="Constitution_of_Venezuela" title="Constitution of Venezuela">Constitution</a> of <a href="Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> and Latin America, promulgated and drafted by <a href="Crist%C3%B3bal_Mendoza" title="Cristóbal Mendoza">Cristóbal Mendoza</a><a href="#cite_note-Diccionario_Perozo_1999-51">[51]</a> and <a href="Juan_Germ%C3%A1n_Roscio" title="Juan Germán Roscio">Juan Germán Roscio</a> and in <a href="Caracas" title="Caracas">Caracas</a>. It established a federal government but was repealed one year later.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

On 19 March 1812, the <a href="Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a> was ratified by a <a href="Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">parliament</a> gathered in <a href="Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadiz">Cadiz</a>, the only Spanish continental city which was safe from <a href="Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">French occupation</a>. The Spanish Constitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several <a href="South_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="South Europe">South European</a> and <a href="Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> nations, for example, the <a href="Liberal_Revolution_of_1820" title="Liberal Revolution of 1820">Portuguese Constitution of 1822</a>, constitutions of various <a href="Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> states during <a href="Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carbonari</a> revolts (i.e., in the <a href="Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>), <a href="Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">the Norwegian constitution of 1814</a>, or the <a href="1824_Constitution_of_Mexico" title="1824 Constitution of Mexico">Mexican Constitution of 1824</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

In <a href="Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, the <a href="Brazilian_Constitution_of_1824" title="Brazilian Constitution of 1824">Constitution of 1824</a> expressed the option for the monarchy as a political system after Brazilian Independence. The leader of the national emancipation process was the Portuguese prince <a href="Pedro_I_of_Brazil" title="Pedro I of Brazil">Pedro I</a>, the elder son of the king of Portugal. Pedro was crowned in 1822 as the first emperor of Brazil. The country was ruled by a Constitutional Monarchy until 1889 when it adopted the Republican model.

In <a href="Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, as a result of the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the <a href="Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> lost its personal possession of <a href="Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> to <a href="Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. Sweden had already enacted its <a href="Instrument_of_Government_(1809)" title="Instrument of Government (1809)">1809 Instrument of Government</a>, which saw the division of power between the <a href="Riksdag_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Riksdag of Sweden">Riksdag</a>, the king and the <a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal <a href="Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">constitution</a> in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones, but maintaining a hereditary <a href="Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">monarch</a> limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.

The first <a href="Swiss_Federal_Constitution" title="Swiss Federal Constitution">Swiss Federal Constitution</a> was put in force in September 1848 (with official revisions in 1878, 1891, 1949, 1971, 1982 and 1999).

The <a href="Serbian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian revolution">Serbian revolution</a> initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835. The first Serbian constitution (Sretenjski ustav) was adopted at the national assembly in <a href="Kragujevac" title="Kragujevac">Kragujevac</a> on 15 February 1835.

The <a href="Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Constitution of Canada</a> came into force on 1 July 1867, as the British North America Act, an act of the British Parliament. Over a century later, the BNA Act was patriated to the Canadian Parliament and augmented with the <a href="Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Apart from the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982, Canada's constitution also has unwritten elements based in common law and convention.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles_of_constitutional_design">Principles of constitutional design</h2></div>

After tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functioned according to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs, who <a href="Rule_by_decree" title="Rule by decree">ruled by decree</a>, or mere personal whim. Such rule led some thinkers to take the position that what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much as the character of the rulers. This view can be seen in <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, who called for rule by "philosopher-kings".<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Later writers, such as <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, would examine designs for the government from a legal and historical standpoint.

The <a href="Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints. This began with revival of the Roman <a href="Law_of_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of nations">law of nations</a> concept<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary "laws of war and peace"<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> to ameliorate wars and make them less likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>

A seminal juncture in this line of discourse arose in England from the <a href="English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a>, the <a href="Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwellian</a> <a href="Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Protectorate</a>, the writings of <a href="Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="Samuel_Rutherford" title="Samuel Rutherford">Samuel Rutherford</a>, the <a href="Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a>, <a href="John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, and <a href="James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">James Harrington</a>, leading to the debate between <a href="Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>, arguing for the divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, <a href="Henry_Neville_(writer)" title="Henry Neville (writer)">Henry Neville</a>, <a href="James_Tyrrell_(writer)" title="James Tyrrell (writer)">James Tyrrell</a>, <a href="Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Algernon Sidney</a>, and <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. What arose from the latter was a concept of government being erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a state of society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or social laws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations.

Along the way, several writers examined how the design of government was important, even if the government were headed by a monarch. They also classified various historical examples of governmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and considered how just and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might be obtained by combining elements of each into a more complex design that balanced competing tendencies. Some, such as <a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, also examined how the functions of government, such as legislative, executive, and judicial, might appropriately be separated into branches. The prevailing theme among these writers was that the design of constitutions was not completely arbitrary or a matter of taste. They generally held that there are underlying principles of design that constrain all constitutions for every polity or organization. Each built on the ideas of those before concerning what those principles might be.

The later writings of <a href="Orestes_Brownson" title="Orestes Brownson">Orestes Brownson</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> would try to explain what constitutional designers were trying to do. According to Brownson there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what was called "natural law". The second is the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a constitution of government. The second would include such elements as the making of decisions by the public <a href="Convention_(meeting)" title="Convention (meeting)">conventions</a> called by <a href="Public_notice" title="Public notice">public notice</a> and conducted by established <a href="Parliamentary_procedure" title="Parliamentary procedure">rules of procedure</a>. Each constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, as well as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification. Brownson argued that a <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> is a society with effective dominion over a well-defined territory, that consent to a well-designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that provisions of a written constitution of government can be "unconstitutional" if they are inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society. Brownson argued that it is not ratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must also be competently designed and applied.

Other writers<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutions of government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident that the constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, or that their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after experience with their use. Provisions that give rise to certain kinds of questions are seen to need additional provisions for how to resolve those questions, and provisions that offer no course of action may best be omitted and left to policy decisions. Provisions that conflict with what Brownson and others can discern are the underlying "constitutions" of nature and society tend to be difficult or impossible to execute, or to lead to unresolvable disputes.

Constitutional design has been treated as a kind of <a href="Metagame" title="Metagame">metagame</a> in which play consists of finding the best design and provisions for a written constitution that will be the rules for the game of government, and that will be most likely to optimize a balance of the utilities of justice, liberty, and security. An example is the metagame <a href="Nomic" title="Nomic">Nomic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

Political economy theory regards constitutions as coordination devices that help citizens to prevent rulers from abusing power. If the citizenry can coordinate a response to police government officials in the face of a constitutional fault, then the government have the incentives to honor the rights that the constitution guarantees.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> An alternative view considers that constitutions are not enforced by the citizens at-large, but rather by the administrative powers of the state. Because rulers cannot themselves implement their policies, they need to rely on a set of organizations (armies, courts, police agencies, tax collectors) to implement it. In this position, they can directly sanction the government by refusing to cooperate, disabling the authority of the rulers. Therefore, constitutions could be characterized by a self-enforcing equilibria between the rulers and powerful administrators.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_features">Key features</h2></div>

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Most commonly, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a <a href="Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a>/administration. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called "<a href="Basic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Law">Basic Law</a>".

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3></div>

<th>Example

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Codified</td>

<td>In single act (document)</td>

<td>Most of the world (first: <a href="Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States</a>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">Uncodified</td>

<td>Fully written (in few documents)</td>

<td><a href="Constitution_of_San_Marino" title="Constitution of San Marino">San Marino</a>, <a href="Basic_Laws_of_Israel" title="Basic Laws of Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="Basic_Law_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Basic Law of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Partially unwritten (see <a href="Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional convention</a>)</td>

<td><a href="List_of_Canadian_constitutional_documents" title="List of Canadian constitutional documents">Canada</a>, <a href="Constitution_of_New_Zealand" title="Constitution of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten; see <a href="Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional convention</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Codified_constitution">Codified constitution</h4></div>

Most states in the world have codified constitutions.

Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a <a href="Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a>. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted and some scholars have pointed out that high constitutional <a href="Wiki-constitutionalism" title="Wiki-constitutionalism">turnover</a> within a given country may itself be detrimental to the separation of powers and the rule of law.

States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary <a href="Statute" title="Statute">statute</a> law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court and struck down as <a href="Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>. In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to <a href="Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">amend a constitution</a>. These procedures may include: the convocation of a special <a href="Constituent_assembly" title="Constituent assembly">constituent assembly</a> or constitutional convention, requiring a <a href="Supermajority" title="Supermajority">supermajority</a> of legislators' votes, approval in two terms of <a href="Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</a>, the consent of regional legislatures, a <a href="Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> process, and/or other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.

Constitutions may also provide that their <a href="Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment</a>. In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called unconstitutional constitutional law.

Codified constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial <a href="Preamble" title="Preamble">preamble</a>, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a <a href="Constitutional_references_to_God" title="Constitutional references to God">reference to God</a> and/or to fundamental values of the state such as <a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> or <a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>. In ethnic nation-states such as <a href="Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, the mission of the state can be defined as preserving a specific nation, language and culture.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uncodified_constitution">Uncodified constitution</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">Uncodified constitution</a></div>

As of 2017 only two sovereign states, <a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, have wholly uncodified constitutions. The <a href="Basic_Laws_of_Israel" title="Basic Laws of Israel">Basic Laws of Israel</a> have since 1950 been intended to be the basis for a constitution, but as of 2017 it had not been drafted. The various Laws are considered to have precedence over other laws, and give the procedure by which they can be amended, typically by a simple majority of members of the Knesset (parliament).<a href="#cite_note-lawsintro-67">[67]</a>

Uncodified constitutions are the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries (such as in the <a href="Westminster_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster System">Westminster System</a> that developed in Britain). By contrast to codified constitutions, uncodified constitutions include both written sources – e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament – and unwritten sources – <a href="Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional conventions</a>, observation of <a href="Precedent" title="Precedent">precedents</a>, <a href="Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">royal prerogatives</a>, <a href="Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">customs</a> and traditions, such as holding general elections on Thursdays; together these constitute <a href="British_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="British constitutional law">British constitutional law</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mixed_constitutions">Mixed constitutions</h4></div>

Some constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. For example, the <a href="Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a> sets out much of the structure of the federal system of government and its relationship with the states. It is however supplemented with statutes of constitutional significance, namely the <a href="Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a> and the <a href="Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a>, and unwritten <a href="Convention_(political_norm)" title="Convention (political norm)">conventions</a> and the common law.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

The <a href="Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Constitution of Canada</a> resulted from the passage of several <a href="British_North_America_Acts" title="British North America Acts">British North America Acts</a> from 1867 to the <a href="Canada_Act_1982" title="Canada Act 1982">Canada Act 1982</a>, the act that formally severed British Parliament's ability to amend the Canadian constitution. The Canadian constitution includes specific legislative acts as mentioned in section 52(2) of the <a href="Constitution_Act%2C_1982" title="Constitution Act, 1982">Constitution Act, 1982</a>. However, some documents not explicitly listed in section 52(2) are also considered constitutional documents in Canada, entrenched via reference; such as the <a href="Proclamation_of_1763" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a>. Although Canada's constitution includes <a href="List_of_Canadian_constitutional_documents" title="List of Canadian constitutional documents">a number of different statutes, amendments, and references</a>, some constitutional rules that exist in Canada are derived from unwritten sources and constitutional conventions.

The terms written constitution and codified constitution are often used interchangeably, as are unwritten constitution and uncodified constitution, although this usage is technically inaccurate. A codified constitution is a single document; states that do not have such a document have uncodified, but not entirely unwritten, constitutions, since much of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws such as the <a href="Basic_Laws_of_Israel" title="Basic Laws of Israel">Basic Laws of Israel</a> and the <a href="Parliament_Acts_1911_and_1949" title="Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949">Parliament Acts</a> of the United Kingdom. Uncodified constitutions largely lack protection against amendment by the government of the time. For example, the U.K. <a href="Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011</a> legislated by simple majority for strictly <a href="Fixed-term_election" title="Fixed-term election">fixed-term parliaments</a>; until then the ruling party could call a general election at any convenient time up to the maximum term of five years. This change would require a constitutional amendment in most nations.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amendments">Amendments</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">Constitutional amendment</a></div>

A constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a <a href="Polity" title="Polity">polity</a>, <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> or other type of <a href="Legal_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal entity">entity</a>. Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text. Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/codicil" class="extiw external" title="wikt:codicil">codicils</a>), thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.

Most constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods_of_amending">Methods of amending</h4></div>

<caption>Procedures for amending national constitutions

</caption>

<th>Approval by

</th>

<th><a href="Supermajority" title="Supermajority">Supermajority</a> needed

</th>

<th>Countries

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="9">Legislature (unicameral, joint session or lower house only)

</td>

<td>>50% + >50% after an election

</td>

<td>Iceland, Sweden

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>>50% + 60% after an election

</td>

<td>Estonia, Greece

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>60% + >50% after an election

</td>

<td>Greece

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>60%

</td>

<td>France, Senegal, Slovakia

</td></tr>

<tr>

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</td>

<td>Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Djibouti, Ecuador, Honduras, Laos, Libya, Malawi, North Korea, North Macedonia, Norway, Palestine, Portugal, Qatar, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Yemen

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 after an election

</td>

<td>Ukraine

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 after an election

</td>

<td>Belgium

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3/4

</td>

<td>Bulgaria, Solomon Islands (in some cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>4/5

</td>

<td>Estonia, Portugal (in the five years following the last amendment)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="9">Legislature + referendum

</td>

<td>>50% + >50%

</td>

<td>Djibouti, Ecuador, Venezuela

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>>50% before and after an election + >50%

</td>

<td>Denmark

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3/5 + >50%

</td>

<td>Russia, Turkey

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2/3 + >50%

</td>

<td>Albania, Andorra, Armenia (some amendments), Egypt, Slovenia, Tunisia, Uganda, Yemen (some amendments), Zambia

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2/3 + >60%

</td>

<td>Seychelles

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3/4 + >50%

</td>

<td>Romania

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3/4 + >50% of eligible voters

</td>

<td>Taiwan

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Namibia, Sierra Leone

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>75% + 75%

</td>

<td>Fiji

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">Legislature + sub-national legislatures

</td>

<td>2⁄3 + >50%

</td>

<td>Mexico

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Ethiopia

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="4">Lower house + upper house

</td>

<td>2⁄3 + >50%

</td>

<td>Poland, Bosnia and Herzegovina

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Bahrain, Germany, India, Italy, Jordan, Namibia, Netherlands, Pakistan, Somalia, Zimbabwe

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>60% + 60%

</td>

<td>Brazil, Czech Republic

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>75% + 75%

</td>

<td>Kazakhstan

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Lower house + upper house + joint session

</td>

<td>>50% + >50% + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Gabon

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Either house of legislature + joint session

</td>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Haiti

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="8">Lower house + upper house + referendum

</td>

<td>>50% + >50% + >50%

</td>

<td>Algeria, France, Ireland, Italy

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>>50% + >50% + >50% (electors in majority of states/cantons)+ >50% (electors)

</td>

<td>Australia, Switzerland

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>60% + 60% + >50% (optional)

</td>

<td>Spain (in most cases)<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3 + >50%

</td>

<td>Japan, Romania, Zimbabwe (some cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3 before and after an election + >50%

</td>

<td>Spain (in some cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="" class="den">2⁄3

</td>

<td>Antigua and Barbuda

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + >50% + >50%

</td>

<td>Poland (some cases)<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>75% + 75% + >50%

</td>

<td>Madagascar

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="5">Lower house + upper house + sub-national legislatures

</td>

<td>12/12

</td>

<td>Canada (in some cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>>50% + >50% + 2⁄3

</td>

<td>Canada (in most cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3 + >50%

</td>

<td>India (in some cases)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3 + 75%

</td>

<td>United States

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3 + 2⁄3 + 50%

</td>

<td>Ethiopia<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Referendum

</td>

<td>>50%

</td>

<td>Estonia, Gabon, Kazakhstan, Malawi, Palau, Philippines, Senegal, Serbia (in some cases), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">Sub-national legislatures

</td>

<td>2⁄3

</td>

<td>Russia

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>75%

</td>

<td>United States

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">Constitutional convention

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>Argentina

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2⁄3

</td>

<td>Bulgaria (some amendments)

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Some countries are listed under more than one method because alternative procedures may be used.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Entrenched_clauses">Entrenched clauses</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">Entrenched clause</a></div>

An entrenched clause or entrenchment clause of a <a href="Basic_law" title="Basic law">basic law</a> or constitution is a provision that makes certain amendments either more difficult or impossible to pass, making such amendments inadmissible. Overriding an entrenched clause may require a <a href="Supermajority" title="Supermajority">supermajority</a>, a <a href="Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a>, or the consent of the minority party. For example, the U.S. Constitution has an entrenched clause that <a href="Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Constitutional_clauses_shielded_from_amendment" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">prohibits abolishing equal suffrage of the States within the Senate without their consent</a>. The term eternity clause is used in a similar manner in the constitutions of the <a href="Constitution_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Constitution of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CECEE-73">[73]</a> <a href="Constitution_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="Constitution_of_Turkey" title="Constitution of Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="Constitution_of_Greece" title="Constitution of Greece">Greece</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-weakcon-75">[75]</a> <a href="Constitution_of_Morocco" title="Constitution of Morocco">Morocco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-EWC-76">[76]</a> <a href="Constitution_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran">the Islamic Republic of Iran</a>, <a href="Constitution_of_Brazil" title="Constitution of Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">Norway</a>.<a href="#cite_note-weakcon-75">[75]</a> <a href="Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">India's constitution</a> does not contain specific provisions on entrenched clauses but the <a href="Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">basic structure doctrine</a> makes it impossible for certain basic features of the Constitution to be altered or destroyed by the <a href="Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament of India</a> through an <a href="Amendment_of_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Amendment of the Constitution of India">amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The <a href="Colombian_Constitution_of_1991" title="Colombian Constitution of 1991">Constitution of Colombia</a> also lacks explicit entrenched clauses, but has a similar substantive limit on amending its fundamental principles through judicial interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-weakcon-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_rights_and_duties">Constitutional rights and duties</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Constitutional_right" title="Constitutional right">Constitutional right</a></div>

Constitutions include various rights and duties. These include the following:

<ul><li>Duty to pay <a href="Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscription" title="Conscription">Duty to serve in the military</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Right to vote</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of expression</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-86">[86]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-86">[86]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li>

<li>Right to dignity<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li>

<li>Right to civil marriage<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">Right to petition</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li>

<li>Right to <a href="Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li>

<li>Right to <a href="Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objection</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></li>

<li>Right to a <a href="Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">fair trial</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li>

<li>Right to <a href="Personal_development" title="Personal development">personal development</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li>

<li>Right to start a family<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country" title="Freedom of information laws by country">Right to information</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li>

<li>Right to marriage<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">Right of revolution</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li>

<li>Right to protect one's reputation<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li>

<li>Right to <a href="Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">renounce citizenship</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_rights" title="Children's rights">Rights of children</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li>

<li>Rights of debtors<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_of_powers">Separation of powers</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></div>

Constitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government. The standard model, described by the <a href="Charles_de_Secondat%2C_baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu">Baron de Montesquieu</a>, involves three branches of government: <a href="Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive</a>, <a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> and <a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial</a>. Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an <a href="Audit" title="Audit">auditory branch</a>. Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Accountability">Accountability</h4></div>

In <a href="Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential</a> and <a href="Semi-presidential" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential">semi-presidential</a> systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the <a href="President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">president</a>, who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election.

In <a href="Parliamentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary">parliamentary</a> systems, Cabinet Ministers are accountable to <a href="Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a>, but it is the <a href="Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a> who appoints and dismisses them. In the case of the United Kingdom and other countries with a monarchy, it is the monarch who appoints and dismisses ministers, on the advice of the prime minister. In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it). Confidence can be lost if the government loses a <a href="Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a> or, depending on the country,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> loses a particularly important vote in parliament, such as vote on the budget. When a government loses confidence, it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_independent_institutions">Other independent institutions</h4></div>

Other independent institutions which some constitutions have set out include a <a href="Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> an <a href="List_of_anti-corruption_agencies" title="List of anti-corruption agencies">anti-corruption commission</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> an <a href="Election_commission" title="Election commission">electoral commission</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> a judicial oversight body,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> a <a href="Human_rights_commission" title="Human rights commission">human rights commission</a>,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> a media commission,<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> an <a href="Ombudsman" title="Ombudsman">ombudsman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> and a <a href="Truth_and_reconciliation_commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth and reconciliation commission">truth and reconciliation commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_structure">Power structure</h3></div>

Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty according to the degree of centralisation of power: unitary, federal, and confederal. The distinction is not absolute.

In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the state itself, and the constitution determines this. The territory of the state may be divided into regions, but they are not sovereign and are subordinate to the state. In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of <a href="Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a> dictates that sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. Some powers have been <a href="Devolution" title="Devolution">devolved</a> to <a href="Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, <a href="Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and <a href="Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (but not <a href="England" title="England">England</a>). Some unitary states (<a href="Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> is an example) devolve more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state.

A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called states, provinces, etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).

A confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limited coordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called "confederal" states are actually federal.

To some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by <a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a <a href="Supranational_union" title="Supranational union">supranational</a> entity. For example, the countries constituting the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the <a href="Metric_system_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric system of measurement">metric system of measurement</a> instead of national units previously used.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_of_emergency">State of emergency</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></div>

Many constitutions allow the declaration under exceptional circumstances of some form of state of emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended. This provision can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for human rights – see the article on <a href="State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Facade_constitutions">Facade constitutions</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></div>

Italian political theorist <a href="Giovanni_Sartori" title="Giovanni Sartori">Giovanni Sartori</a> noted the existence of national constitutions which are a facade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for <a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened, or never put into practice. An extreme example was the <a href="Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution of the Soviet Union</a> that on paper supported <a href="Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">freedom of assembly</a> and <a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>; however, citizens who transgressed unwritten limits were summarily <a href="Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">imprisoned</a>. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written terms but through deference by government and society to its principles. A constitution may change from being real to a facade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeed each other.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitutional_courts">Constitutional courts</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Constitutional_court" title="Constitutional court">Constitutional court</a> and <a href="Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">Constitutionality</a></div>

Constitutions are often, but by no means always, protected by a legal body whose job it is to interpret those constitutions and, where applicable, declare void executive and legislative acts which infringe the constitution. In some countries, such as <a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, this function is carried out by a dedicated constitutional court which performs this (and only this) function. In other countries, such as <a href="Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, the ordinary courts may perform this function in addition to their other responsibilities. While elsewhere, like in the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the concept of declaring an act to be unconstitutional does not exist.

A constitutional violation is an action or legislative act that is judged by a <a href="Constitutional_court" title="Constitutional court">constitutional court</a> to be contrary to the constitution, that is, unconstitutional. An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a public office holder who acts outside the powers granted to that office by a constitution. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper <a href="Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">constitutional amendment</a> process.

Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all. For example, the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> has traditionally operated under the principle of <a href="Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a> under which the laws passed by <a href="United_Kingdom_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Parliament">United Kingdom Parliament</a> could not be questioned by the courts.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_national_constitutions" title="List of national constitutions">List of national constitutions</a></div>

<ul><li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Constitution of the Roman Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe" title="Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe">Unratified European Union constitution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Treaty_of_Lisbon" title="Treaty of Lisbon">Treaty of Lisbon</a> (adopts same changes, but without constitutional name)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Basic_law" title="Basic law">Basic law</a>, equivalent in some countries, often for a temporary constitution</li>

<li><a href="Apostolic_constitution" title="Apostolic constitution">Apostolic constitution</a> (a class of <a href="Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> documents)</li>

<li><a href="Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">Constitutional amendment</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_court" title="Constitutional court">Constitutional court</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_crisis" title="Constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_documents" title="Constitutional documents">Constitutional documents</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">Constitutional economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Constitutional interpretation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="International_constitutional_law" title="International constitutional law">International constitutional law</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_tradition" title="Legal tradition">Legal tradition</a></li>

<li><a href="International_law" title="International law">International law </a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">Judicial activism</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">Judicial restraint</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Zachary Elkins and Tom Ginsburg. 2021. "<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-100720-102911" class="extiw external" title="doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-100720-102911">What Can We Learn from Written Constitutions?</a>" Annual Review of Political Science.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The <a href="New_Oxford_American_Dictionary" title="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American Dictionary</a>, Second Edn., <a href="Erin_McKean" title="Erin McKean">Erin McKean</a> (editor), 2051 pp., 2005, Oxford University Press, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> (<cite id="CITEREFChiltonVersteeg2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chilton, Adam S.; Versteeg, Mila (2014). "Do Constitutional Rights Make a Difference?". Coase-Sandor Institute for Law & Economics. Coase-Sandor Institute for Law & Economics Working Paper No. 694. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2477530">2477530</a>.</cite>)

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> See:

<ul><li>Reuven Firestone, Jihād: the origin of holy war in Islam (1999) p. 118;</li>

<li>"Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online</li></ul>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R.B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p. 4.

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<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Watt. Muhammad at Medina. pp. 227–228 Watt argues that the initial agreement was shortly after the hijra and the document was amended at a later date specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina with the first treaty being written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see the same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell'Islam, Volume I. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, pp. 82ff who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Wellhausen bases this judgement on three considerations; first Muhammad is very diffident about his own position, he accepts the Pagan tribes within the Umma, and maintains the Jewish clans as clients of the Ansars see Wellhausen, Excursus, p. 158. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within 5 months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/134169/constitution">constitution (politics and law)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150417032859/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/134169/constitution">Archived</a> April 17, 2015, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 12, 2013.

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<li id="cite_note-Borg-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Borg_42-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBorgNordellRodheNordell1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Borg, Ivan; Nordell, Erik; Rodhe, Sten; Nordell, Erik (1967). Historia för gymnasiet. Årskurs 1 (in Swedish) (4th ed.). Stockholm: AV Carlsons. p. 410. <a href="SELIBR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SELIBR (identifier)">SELIBR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/bib/10259755">10259755</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-B-43"><a href="#cite_ref-B_43-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBäcklin1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bäcklin, Martin, ed. (1965). Historia för gymnasiet: allmän och nordisk historia efter år 1000 (in Swedish) (3rd ed.). Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. pp. 283–284. <a href="SELIBR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SELIBR (identifier)">SELIBR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/bib/1610850">1610850</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Borg412-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Borg412_44-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBorgNordellRodheNordell1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Borg, Ivan; Nordell, Erik; Rodhe, Sten; Nordell, Erik (1967). Historia för gymnasiet. Årskurs 1 (in Swedish) (4th ed.). Stockholm: AV Carlsons. pp. 412–413. <a href="SELIBR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SELIBR (identifier)">SELIBR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/bib/10259755">10259755</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-auto2-45"><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_45-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2014/sep/22/bob-goodlatte/goodlatte-says-us-has-oldest-working-national-cons/">"Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution"</a>. PolitiFact.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBlaustein1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Albert_Blaustein" title="Albert Blaustein">Blaustein, Albert</a> (January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2xCMVAFyGi8C&q=May+second+constitution+1791&pg=PA15">Constitutions of the World</a>. Fred B. Rothman & Company. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8377-0362-6</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Isaac Kramnick, Introduction, <cite id="CITEREFMadison1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison, James</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalistpapers00madi">The Federalist Papers</a>. Penguin Classics. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalistpapers00madi/page/13">13</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-14-044495-7</bdi>. <q>May second oldest constitution.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Markoff-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Markoff_48-0">^</a> "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." <a href="John_Markoff_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Markoff (professor)">John Markoff</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/wavesofdemocracy0000mark/page/121/mode/2up" class="extiw external" title="iarchive:wavesofdemocracy0000mark/page/121/mode/2up">Waves of Democracy</a>, 1996, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8039-9019-7</bdi>, p. 121.

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<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.communications-unlimited.nl/the-polish-constitution-of-may-3rd-a-milestone-in-the-history-of-law-and-the-rise-of-democracy/">"The Polish Constitution of May 3rd – a milestone in the history of law and the rise of democracy"</a>. Retrieved September 14, 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171116194049/http://www.postdiploma.pl/ConstENA5.pdf">"The Constitution of May 3 (1791)"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postdiploma.pl/ConstENA5.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on November 16, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Diccionario_Perozo_1999-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Diccionario_Perozo_1999_51-0">^</a> Briceño Perozo, Mario. "Mendoza, Cristóbal de" in Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela, Vol. 3. Caracas: Fundación Polar, 1999. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>980-6397-37-1</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.kent.ac.uk/warandnation/1811-miranda-declares-independence-in-venezuela-and-civil-war-begins/">"1811 Miranda Declares Independence in Venezuela and Civil War Begins"</a>. War and Nation: identity and the process of state-building in South America (1800-1840). Retrieved February 1, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPayne1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Payne, Stanley G.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofspainpo00payn/page/432">A History of Spain and Portugal: Eighteenth Century to Franco</a>. Vol. 2. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofspainpo00payn/page/432">432–433</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-299-06270-5</bdi>. <q>The Spanish pattern of conspiracy and revolt by liberal army officers ... was emulated in both Portugal and Italy. In the wake of Riego's successful rebellion, the first and only pronunciamiento in Italian history was carried out by liberal officers in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Spanish-style military conspiracy also helped to inspire the beginning of the Russian revolutionary movement with the revolt of the <a href="Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist army officers</a> in 1825. Italian liberalism in 1820–1821 relied on junior officers and the provincial middle classes, essentially the same social base as in Spain. It even used a Hispanized political vocabulary, for it was led by giunte (juntas), appointed local capi politici (jefes políticos), used the terms of liberali and servili (emulating the Spanish word serviles applied to supporters of absolutism), and in the end talked of resisting by means of a guerrilla. For both Portuguese and Italian liberals of these years, the Spanish constitution of 1812 remained the standard document of reference.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLewin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lewin, Leif (May 1, 2007). "Majoritarian and Consensus Democracy: the Swedish Experience". Scandinavian Political Studies. 21 (3): 195–206. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9477.1998.tb00012.x">10.1111/j.1467-9477.1998.tb00012.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-6757">0080-6757</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/schedule-b-to-the-canada-act-1982-uk-1982-c-11/latest/schedule-b-to-the-canada-act-1982-uk-1982-c-11.html#sec60">"Constitution Act, 1982, s. 60"</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> The Constitutional Law Group, Canadian Constitutional Law. 3rd ed. Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications Ltd., 2003, p. 5

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<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Saul, John Ralston. The Doubter's Companion: A Dictionary of Aggressive Common Sense. Toronto: Penguin, 1995.

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/victoria/victoria_.htm">Relectiones</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161221185718/http://constitution.org/victoria/victoria_.htm">Archived</a> December 21, 2016, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Franciscus de Victoria (lect. 1532, first pub. 1557).

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="The_Law_of_War_and_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="The Law of War and Peace">The Law of War and Peace</a>, Hugo Grotius (1625)

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/vct/vct.htm">Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos (Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202051813/http://www.constitution.org/vct/vct.htm">Archived</a> February 2, 2017, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Junius Brutus" (Orig. Fr. 1581, Eng. tr. 1622, 1688)

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<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2053">The American Republic: its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010064705/http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2053">Archived</a> October 10, 2017, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, O.A. Brownson (1866)

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Principles of Constitutional Design, Donald S. Lutz (2006) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-86168-3</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/psa/">The Paradox of Self-Amendment</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060904214447/http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/psa/">Archived</a> September 4, 2006, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Peter Suber (1990) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8204-1212-0</bdi>

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<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeingast2005" class="citation journal cs1">Weingast, Barry R. (Summer 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F089533005774357815">"The Constitutional Dilemma of Economic Liberty"</a>. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (3): 89–108. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F089533005774357815">10.1257/089533005774357815</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGonzález_de_LaraGreifJha2008" class="citation journal cs1">González de Lara, Yadira; Greif, Avner; Jha, Saumitra (May 2008). "The Administrative Foundations of Self-Enforcing Constitutions". The American Economic Review. 98 (2): 105–109. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.386.3870">10.1.1.386.3870</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.98.2.105">10.1257/aer.98.2.105</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-lawsintro-67"><a href="#cite_ref-lawsintro_67-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod.htm">"Basic Laws – Introduction"</a>. The Knesset. 2016. Retrieved May 7, 2017.</cite> Article gives information on the procedures for amending each of the Basic Laws of Israel.

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<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilliamsBrennanLynch2018" class="citation book cs1">Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2018). Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials (7th ed.). Sydney: Federation Press. p. 4. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-76002-151-1</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> "The Spanish Constitution and its reform" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.congreso.es/la-constitucion-y-su-reforma-ordinaria">blog.congreso.es</a>. Retrieved 28 August 2023.

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<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm">"The Constitution of the Republic of Poland"</a>. www.sejm.gov.pl. Retrieved May 25, 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/polski/kon1.htm">"Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej"</a>. www.sejm.gov.pl. Retrieved May 25, 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> "Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia". Article 105, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5a84.html">21 August 1995</a>. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Retrieved 28 August 2023.

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<li id="cite_note-CECEE-73"><a href="#cite_ref-CECEE_73-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKyriaki_Topidi_and_Alexander_H.E._Morawa2010" class="citation book cs1">Kyriaki Topidi and Alexander H.E. Morawa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IhLKZKm7zGgC&pg=PA105">Constitutional Evolution in Central and Eastern Europe (Studies in Modern Law and Policy)</a>. Ashgate Publishing. p. 105. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1409403272</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf">The official English language translation of the Greek Constitution as of May 27, 2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114142907/http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf">Archived</a> November 14, 2017, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Article 110 §1, p. 124, source: Hellenic Parliament, "The provisions of the Constitution shall be subject to revision with the exception of those which determine the form of government as a Parliamentary Republic and those of articles 2 paragraph 1, 4 paragraphs 1, 4 and 7 , 5 paragraphs 1 and 3, 13 paragraph 1, and 26."

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<li id="cite_note-weakcon-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-weakcon_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weakcon_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weakcon_75-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFJoel_Colón-Ríos2012" class="citation book cs1">Joel Colón-Ríos (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TqqQAzH2zxEC&pg=PA67">Weak Constitutionalism: Democratic Legitimacy and the Question of Constituent Power (Routledge Research in Constitutional Law</a>. Routledge. p. 67. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0415671903</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-EWC-76"><a href="#cite_ref-EWC_76-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGerhard_Robbers2006" class="citation book cs1">Gerhard Robbers (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M3A-xgf1yM4C&pg=PA626">Encyclopedia of World Constitutions</a>. Facts On File, Incorporated. p. 626. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0816060788</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120725005100/http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm">"The basic features"</a>. <a href="The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a>. September 26, 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm">the original</a> on July 25, 2012. Retrieved July 9, 2012.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=taxes&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Duty to pay taxes" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=milserv&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Duty to serve in the military" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=work&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Duty to work" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=voteun&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Claim of universal suffrage" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=assem&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of assembly" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=assoc&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of association" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=express&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of expression" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=freemove&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of movement" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-auto1-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_86-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=opinion&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of opinion/thought/conscience" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=freerel&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Freedom of religion" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=dignity&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Human dignity" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=civmar&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Provision for civil marriage" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=petition&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right of petition" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=acfree&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to academic freedom" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=nomil&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to conscientious objection" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=fairtri&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to fair trial" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved October 21, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=devlpers&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to development of personality" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=fndfam&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to found a family" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=infoacc&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to information" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=marriage&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to marry" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=overthrw&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to overthrow government" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=privacy&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to privacy" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=libel&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to protect one's reputation" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=citren&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Right to renounce citizenship" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=childpro&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Rights of children" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=debtors&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Rights of debtors" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> A synchronic comparative perspective were before the founding fathers of Italian Constitution, when they were faced with the question of bicameralism and related issues of confidence and the legislative procedure, <cite id="CITEREFBuonomo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Buonomo, Giampiero (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160801/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89409110">"Il bicameralismo tra due modelli mancati"</a>. L'Ago e Il Filo Edizione Online. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89409110">the original</a> on March 24, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=bank&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Central bank" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=cc&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Counter corruption commission" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=ecom&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Electoral commission" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=jc&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Establishment of judicial council" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=hr&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Human rights commission" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=medcom&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Media commission" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=ombuds&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Ombudsman" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=truthcom&status=in_force&status=is_draft">"Read about "Truth and reconciliation commission" on Constitute"</a>. www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved May 5, 2020.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constituteproject.org">Constitute</a>, an indexed and searchable database of all constitutions in force</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amendmentsproject.org/">Amendments Project</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623044421/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-61">Dictionary of the History of Ideas</a> Constitutionalism</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060502181213/http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/%7Ewroblew/html/en_pr_konst.html">Constitutional Law</a>, "Constitutions, bibliography, links"</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/">International Constitutional Law:</a> English translations of various national constitutions</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190502/http://unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=31">United Nations Rule of Law: Constitution-making</a>, on the relationship between constitution-making, the <a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and the United Nations.</li>

<li> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Constitution" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Portal:Constitution">Portal:Constitution</a> at Wikisource</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/constitution-politics-and-law">constitution | Theories, Features, Practices, & Facts | Britannica</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/constitutionalism/">Constitutionalism | Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/constitutions-and-constitutionalism">Constitutions and Constitutionalism | Encyclopedia.com</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Politics_and_government31" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a> and <a href="Government" title="Government">government</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li>

<li><a href="Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_government" title="Central government">Central government</a></li>

<li><a href="Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary state</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government">Federal government</a></li>

<li><a href="National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li>

<li>Levels:</li>

<li><a href="Local_government" title="Local government">Local government</a></li>

<li><a href="County_government" class="mw-redirect" title="County government">County government</a></li>

<li><a href="Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">Administrative division</a></li>

<li><a href="Municipality" title="Municipality">Municipality</a></li>

<li><a href="Township" title="Township">Township</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Lists:</li>

<li><a href="List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">Govt systems</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_system_of_government" title="List of countries by system of government">Countries by system</a></li>

<li>Systems:</li>

<li><a href="Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederation</a></li>

<li><a href="Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Electocracy" title="Electocracy">Electocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergatocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergatocracy">Ergatocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Geniocracy" title="Geniocracy">Geniocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">Military dictatorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li>

<li><a href="Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a>:</li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary system</a></li>

<li><a href="Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cellular_democracy" title="Cellular democracy">Cellular </a></li>

<li><a href="Collaborative_e-democracy" title="Collaborative e-democracy">Collaborative</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">Consensus</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_democracy" title="Conservative democracy">Conservative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmopolitan_democracy" title="Cosmopolitan democracy">Cosmopolitan</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li>

<li><a href="Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>

<li>Theoreticians:</li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">Unemployment benefits</a></li>

<li><a href="National_healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="National healthcare">National healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">Public education</a></li>

<li><a href="Military" title="Military">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li>

<li>Regulation:</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental regulation">Environmental regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Banking_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking regulation">Banking regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Food inspection">Food inspection</a></li>

<li>Municipal:</li>

<li><a href="Traffic_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic lights">Traffic lights</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Street_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Street cleaning">Street cleaning</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Documents</li>

<li><a href="Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">Uncodified constitution</a></li>

<li>Roles:</li>

<li><a href="Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Head of state</a></li>

<li><a href="Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of government</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li>

<li><a href="President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">President</a></li>

<li><a href="Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">Prime minister</a></li>

<li>Bodies:</li>

<li><a href="Cabinet_(government)" title="Cabinet (government)">Cabinet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">Ministry</a></li>

<li><a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li>

<li><a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>

<li>Legislative bodies</li>

<li><a href="Congress" title="Congress">Congress</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a></li>

<li><a href="Council" title="Council">Council</a></li>

<li><a href="House_of_Assembly" title="House of Assembly">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Legislative_council" title="Legislative council">Legislative council</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Process:</li>

<li><a href="Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee" title="Committee">Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li>

<li>Outcomes:</li>

<li><a href="Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections">Elections</a>:</li>

<li><a href="Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Campaigns</a></li>

<li>Groups:</li>

<li><a href="Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">Political parties</a></li>

<li><a href="Advocacy_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Advocacy groups">Advocacy groups</a></li>

<li>Issues:</li>

<li><a href="Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">Civil rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Fields of study</li>

<li><a href="Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Overviews:</li>

<li><a href="Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li>

<li>Reforms</li>

<li><a href="Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a></li>

<li>Documents:</li>

<li><a href="Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Embassy" class="mw-redirect" title="Embassy">Embassy</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li>

<li>World:</li>

<li><a href="World_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="World Government">World government</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="World Court">World Court</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></li>

<li>Templates:</li>

<li>{{Political ideologies}}</li>

<li>{{Political culture}}</li>

<li>{{Political spectrum}}</li>

<li>{{Social and political philosophy}}</li>

<li>{{liberalism}}</li>

<li>{{Conservatism navbox}}</li>

<li>{{aspects of capitalism}}</li>

<li>{{Western culture}}</li>

<li>{{Autonomous types of first-tier administration}}</li>

<li>{{World government}}</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Forms of government</li>

<li>Types of democracy</li>

<li>Political parties</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries568" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Common_types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries568" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common types of government <a href="Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">ministers</a> and <a href="Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">ministries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">President</a></li>

<li><a href="Vice_president" title="Vice president">Vice president</a></li>

<li><a href="Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">Prime minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Deputy_prime_minister" title="Deputy prime minister">Deputy prime minister</a></li>

<li><a href="First_minister" title="First minister">First minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Deputy_First_Minister_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Deputy First Minister (disambiguation)">Deputy First Minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Premier" title="Premier">Premier</a></li>

<li><a href="Office_of_the_President_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Office of the President (disambiguation)">Office of the president</a></li>

<li><a href="Cabinet_department" title="Cabinet department">Cabinet department / Office of the prime minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Speaker_(politics)" title="Speaker (politics)">Speaker / President of the assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">Minister</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Secretary_of_state" title="Secretary of state">Secretary of state</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of state">Minister of state</a></li>

<li><a href="Deputy_minister" title="Deputy minister">Deputy minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Undersecretary" title="Undersecretary">Undersecretary</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_secretary" title="Parliamentary secretary">Assistant minister/Parliamentary secretary</a></li>

<li><a href="Associate_Minister_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Associate Minister (disambiguation)">Associate Minister</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defence / foreign affairs / public safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_defence" title="Ministry of defence">Ministry of defence</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_foreign_affairs" title="Ministry of foreign affairs">Ministry of foreign affairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_minister" title="Immigration minister">Immigration minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Interior_minister" title="Interior minister">Interior minister</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interior_ministry" title="Interior ministry">Interior ministry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="International_development_minister" title="International development minister">International development minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_for_European_Affairs_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for European Affairs (disambiguation)">Europe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics/ infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commerce_minister" title="Commerce minister">Commerce minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_the_economy" title="Ministry of the economy">Ministry of the economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_finance" title="Ministry of finance">Ministry of finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_of_industry" title="Minister of industry">Minister of industry</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_Infrastructure_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Ministry of Infrastructure (disambiguation)">Ministry of infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_trade_and_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of trade and industry">Ministry of trade and industry</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of transport">Ministry of transport</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment / natural resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Energy_minister" title="Energy minister">Energy minister</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_energy" title="Ministry of energy">Ministry of energy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Environment_minister" title="Environment minister">Environment minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of electricity">Ministry of electricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_petroleum" title="Ministry of petroleum">Ministry of petroleum</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_water_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of water resources">Ministry of water resources</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Culture_minister" title="Culture minister">Culture minister</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of culture">Ministry of culture</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Education_minister" title="Education minister">Education minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_education_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of education and culture">Ministry of education and culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Health minister">Health minister</a>

<ul><li><a href="Health_department" title="Health department">Ministry of health</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Information_minister" title="Information minister">Information minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Housing_minister" title="Housing minister">Housing minister</a>

<ul><li><a href="Housing_authority" title="Housing authority">Ministry of housing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_justice" title="Ministry of justice">Ministry of justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_of_labour" title="Minister of labour">Minister of labour</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of labour">Ministry of labour</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Regional_minister" title="Regional minister">Regional minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_sports" title="Ministry of sports">Ministry of sports</a></li>

<li><a href="Tourism_minister" title="Tourism minister">Tourism minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_home_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of home affairs">Ministry of home affairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_religious_affairs" title="Ministry of religious affairs">Ministry of religious affairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_science" title="Ministry of science">Ministry of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_social_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of social affairs">Ministry of social affairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of social security">Ministry of social security</a></li>

<li><a href="Minister_for_Veterans_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for Veterans (disambiguation)">Minister for Veterans</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of women">Ministry of women</a>

<ul><li><a href="Minister_for_Women_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for Women (disambiguation)">Minister for women</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Minister_without_portfolio" title="Minister without portfolio">Minister without portfolio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of current heads of state and government">Presidents</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_vice_presidents_and_designated_acting_presidents" title="List of current vice presidents and designated acting presidents">Vice presidents</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of current heads of state and government">Prime ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="Deputy_prime_minister#Lists_of_deputy_prime_ministers" title="Deputy prime minister">Deputy prime ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_presidents_of_legislatures" title="List of current presidents of legislatures">Presidents of assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_agriculture_ministries" title="List of agriculture ministries">Agriculture ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ministers_of_climate_change" title="List of ministers of climate change">Climate change ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ministries_of_communications" title="List of ministries of communications">Communications ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_defence_ministers" title="List of current defence ministers">Defence ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_education_ministries" title="List of education ministries">Education ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ministers_of_the_environment" title="List of ministers of the environment">Environment ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_environmental_ministries" title="List of environmental ministries">Environment ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_finance_ministers" title="List of current finance ministers">Finance ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_foreign_ministers" title="List of current foreign ministers">Foreign ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Forest ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_health_departments_and_ministries" title="List of health departments and ministries">Health ministries</a> (<a href="Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">mental health</a>)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_current_interior_ministers" title="List of current interior ministers">Interior ministers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_public_works_ministries" title="List of public works ministries">Public works ministries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Government ministers by portfolio</li>

<li> Ministries by portfolio</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_services418" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Public_services418" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Public_service" title="Public service">Public services</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Municipalization" title="Municipalization">Municipalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive tax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_newspaper" title="Free newspaper">Free newspaper</a></li>

<li><a href="Product_sample" title="Product sample">Product sample</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_bad" title="Public bad">Public bad</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public good (economics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a></li>

<li><a href="State_ownership" title="State ownership">Public ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_rights" title="Public rights">Public rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">Public sphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Government_procurement" title="Government procurement">Public procurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_trust" title="Public trust">Public trust</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_value" title="Public value">Public value</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">Universal access to education</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></li>

<li><a href="Fire_department" title="Fire department">Fire department</a></li>

<li><a href="Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="Mail" title="Mail">Postal service</a>

<ul><li><a href="Postal_savings_system" title="Postal savings system">Savings system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">Public broadcasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Public_utility" title="Public utility">Public utility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electric_utility" title="Electric utility">Electric utility</a></li>

<li><a href="Postal%2C_telegraph_and_telephone_service" title="Postal, telegraph and telephone service">Telecommunication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Municipal_broadband" title="Municipal broadband">Municipal broadband</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_water_system" title="Public water system">Public water system</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Drinking_fountain" title="Drinking fountain">Drinking fountain</a></li>

<li><a href="Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_clinic" title="Free clinic">Free clinic</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_bank" title="Public bank">Public bank</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_bookcase" title="Public bookcase">Public bookcase</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_computer" title="Public computer">Public computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Public hospital</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_library" title="Public library">Public library</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_open_space" title="Public open space">Public open space</a></li>

<li><a href="State_school" title="State school">Public school</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_space" title="Public space">Public space</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_toilet" title="Public toilet">Public toilet</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_university" title="Public university">Public university</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">Publicly funded health care</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li>

<li><a href="Job_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation">Job creation</a></li>

<li><a href="Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li>

<li><a href="Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a>

<ul><li><a href="National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_pension" title="Social pension">Social pension</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">Social security</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Youth_services" title="Youth services">Youth services</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_public_transport" title="Free public transport">Free public transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Government_auction" title="Government auction">Government auction</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_float" title="Public float">Public float</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_holiday" title="Public holiday">Public holiday</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_offering" title="Public offering">Public offering</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_security" title="Public security">Public security</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_use" title="Public use">Public use</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_viewing_area" title="Public viewing area">Public viewing area</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_services" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Public services">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law537" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Law537" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li>

<li><a href="Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a>

<ul><li><a href="Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li>

<li><a href="Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li>

<li><a href="Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abortion_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li>

<li><a href="Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_law" title="Animal law">Animal law</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li>

<li><a href="Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li>

<li><a href="Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li>

<li><a href="Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li>

<li><a href="Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li>

<li><a href="Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li>

<li><a href="IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li>

<li><a href="Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li>

<li><a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li>

<li><a href="International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li>

<li><a href="International_labour_law" title="International labour law">International labour law</a></li>

<li><a href="International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li>

<li><a href="International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li>

<li><a href="Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li>

<li><a href="Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_law" title="Maritime law">Maritime law</a></li>

<li><a href="Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_law" title="Music law">Music law</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li>

<li><a href="Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a>

<ul><li><a href="Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li>

<li><a href="Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li>

<li><a href="International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li>

<li><a href="Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li>

<li><a href="State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li>

<li><a href="Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li>

<li><a href="Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li>

<li><a href="Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>

<li><a href="Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li>

<li><a href="Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li>

<li><a href="Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li>

<li><a href="Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a>

<ul><li><a href="Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li>

<li><a href="Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li>

<li><a href="Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li>

<li><a href="Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li>

<li><a href="Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li>

<li><a href="Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li>

<li><a href="Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>

<li><a href="Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li>

<li><a href="Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li>

<li><a href="Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li>

<li><a href="International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li>

<li><a href="Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Admission_to_practice_law" title="Admission to practice law">Admission to practice law</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li>

<li><a href="Disbarment" title="Disbarment">Disbarment</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Damages" title="Damages">Damages</a></li>

<li><a href="Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence (penology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">Proportionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legal_status" title="Legal status">Legal status</a></li>

<li><a href="Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li>

<li><a href="Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">Judicial activism</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_misconduct" title="Judicial misconduct">Judicial misconduct</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kangaroo_court" title="Kangaroo court">Kangaroo court</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>

<li><a href="Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li>

<li><a href="Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li>

<li><a href="Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li>

<li><a href="Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li>

<li><a href="Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li>

<li><a href="Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultra_vires" title="Ultra vires">Ultra vires</a></li>

<li><a href="Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Barristers'_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li>

<li><a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li>

<li><a href="Court" title="Court">Court</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li>

<li><a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Legal_industry_by_country" title="Legal industry by country">Legal industry by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Military" title="Military">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Police" title="Police">Police</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li>

<li><a href="Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3ALaw" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li>

<li><a href="Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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